Methods and composition for measuring the amount of vitamin d derivatives

ABSTRACT

Methods and compositions for measuring the amount of vitamin D derivatives are disclosed. Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) in combination with a modified ligand-binding domain of the vitamin D receptor (LBD-VDR) to measure vitamin D derivatives are also disclosed.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Disclosure

The present invention relates generally to methods and compositions for measuring the amount of vitamin D derivatives. More particularly, the invention relates to the use of Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) and a modified ligand-binding domain of the vitamin D receptor (LBD-VDR) to measure vitamin D derivatives.

2. Brief Description of Related Technology

Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol (collectively are referred to as “Vitamin D”) are fat-soluble seco-steroid precursors to Vitamin D prohormones. The Vitamin D metabolites known as 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (collectively referred to herein as “25-hydroxyvitamin D”) are fat-soluble steroid prohormones to Vitamin D hormones that contribute to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol are normally present at stable, low concentrations in human blood. Both cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol are metabolized into prohormones by enzymes primarily located in the liver of the human body. Cholecalciferol is metabolized into a prohormone 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃, and ergocalciferol is metabolized into two prohormones, 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 24(S)-hydroxyvitamin D₂.

The Vitamin D prohormones are further metabolized in the kidneys into potent hormones. The prohormone 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ is metabolized into a hormone 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (or calcitriol); likewise, 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 24(S)-hydroxyvitamin D₂ are metabolized into hormones known as 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₂ and 1α,24(S)-dihydroxyvitamin D₂, respectively. Production of these hormones from the prohormones also can occur outside of the kidney in cells which contain the required enzyme(s).

Surges in blood or intracellular prohormone concentrations can promote excessive extrarenal hormone production, leading to local adverse effects on calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Such surges also can inhibit hepatic prohormone production from subsequent supplemental Vitamin D and promote catabolism of both Vitamin D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the kidney and other tissues.

The Vitamin D hormones have essential roles in human health which are mediated by intracellular Vitamin D receptors (VDR). In particular, the Vitamin D hormones regulate blood calcium levels by controlling the absorption of dietary calcium by the small intestine and the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys. Excessive hormone levels can lead to abnormally elevated urine calcium (hypercalciuria), blood calcium (hypercalcemia) and blood phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia). The Vitamin D hormones also participate in the regulation of cellular differentiation and growth, parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion by the parathyroid glands, and normal bone formation and metabolism. Further, Vitamin D hormones are required for the normal functioning of the musculoskeletal, immune and renin-angiotensin systems. Numerous other roles for Vitamin D hormones are being postulated and elucidated based on the documented presence of intracellular VDR in nearly every human tissue.

The actions of Vitamin D hormones on specific tissues depend on the degree to which they bind to (or occupy) the intracellular VDR in those tissues. Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol have affinities for the VDR which are estimated to be at least 100-fold lower than those of the Vitamin D hormones. As a consequence, physiological concentrations of cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol exert little, if any, biological actions without prior metabolism to Vitamin D hormones. However, supraphysiologic levels of cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol, in the range of 10 to 1,000 fold higher than normal, can sufficiently occupy the VDR and exert actions like the Vitamin D hormones. Similarly, the prohormones 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ have essentially identical affinities for the VDR which are also estimated to be at least 100-fold lower than those of the Vitamin D hormones. As a consequence, physiological concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ have little, if any, biological actions without prior metabolism to Vitamin D hormones. However, supraphysiologic levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃, in the range of 10 to 1,000 fold higher than normal, can sufficiently occupy the VDR to exert actions like the Vitamin D hormones.

As with most nuclear receptors, VDR undergoes a conformational change upon ligand binding (helix 12 folds underneath H4; Rochel, N., et al,. Mol. Cell. 5, 173-179(2000); Nayeri, S and Carlberg, C. Biochem J. 327, 561-568 (1997)) The ligand binding domain of human VDR is comprised of amino acids˜118-427. Amino acid residues involved in hydrogen bonding to the ligand include Ser-237, Arg-274, Tyr-143, Ser-278, His-305 and His-397. Amino acids that interact with the ligand through non-hydrogen bonding interactions include Tyr-147, Phe-150, Leu-227, Leu-230, Leu-233, Val-234, Ile-271, Ser-275, Trp-286, Cys-288, Val-300, Leu-309, Leu-313 and Val-418. Val-418 is located on the activation helix (helix 12) and is likely to undergo change in proximity as a result of ligand-induced conformational changes (Rochel, N., et al,. Mol. Cell. 5, 173-179(2000)).

One method that may be used to monitor protein-protein interactions is Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) (Berrera et al., Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 186, 285-298 (2008)). FRET microscopy detects energy transfer from a higher-energy donor fluorochrome to a lower-energy acceptor fluorochrome when they are close together. Resonance energy transfer is a mechanism by which energy is transferred directly from one molecule to another. This only occurs over a very small distance, usually less than 10 nm, which is on the order of the size of a typical protein. When each member of a protein-protein pair is labeled with appropriate fluorophores (donor and acceptor), FRET can be used to detect when the proteins are in proximity. It may also be possible to use FRET to detect conformational changes in a single protein tagged with two fluorophores.

SUMMARY

25-hydroxyvitamin D is the preferred vitamin D metabolite to measure when assessing vitamin D deficiency. 25-hydroxyvitamin D will drop before any effect would be seen at the calcitriol level. Thus, in patients where vitamin D levels are suspected to be abnormal (e.g., chronic kidney disease (CKD), bone disease, and the elderly), measuring and monitoring 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels is critical.

In one embodiment of the invention, a method for measuring the amount or concentration of a vitamin D derivative in a sample is provided comprising contacting a sample with a polypeptide comprising a modified VDR ligand-binding domain (VDR-LBD) and a donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores; and measuring the amount of fluorescence, wherein the amount of fluorescence is detectably higher or lower in the presence of the vitamin D derivative relative to the amount of fluorescence in the absence of the vitamin D derivative.

In another embodiment of the invention, the aforementioned method is provided wherein the vitamin D derivative is 25-hydroxyvitamin D. In still another embodiment, the modified VDR has at least a 5-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, 60-fold, 70-fold, 80-fold, 90-fold, 100-fold, 200-fold, or 300-fold higher affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D than to other vitamin D derivatives. In a related embodiment, the modified VDR has at least a 10-fold higher affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D than to other vitamin D derivatives.

In still another embodiment of the invention, the aforementioned method is provided wherein the sample is from a mammalian or human subject. In another embodiment, the human is suffering from chronic kidney disease (CKD).

In yet another embodiment, the aforementioned method is provided wherein the modified VDR comprises at least one mutation causing said modified VDR to have a higher binding affinity to 25-hydroxyvitamin D relative to calcitriol. In another embodiment, the mutation comprises a substitution at an amino acid position such as, but not limited to, 274, 147, 150, 227, 230, 233, 234, 271, 275, 286, 288, 300, 309, 313, 418, 237, 143, 278, 305 and 397. In one embodiment, the mutation comprises a substitution at amino acid position 274. In a related embodiment, the mutation at position 274 comprises a substitution of a basic amino acid residue for an aliphatic amino acid residue. In still another embodiment, the mutation comprises Arg274Leu.

In another embodiment of the invention, the aforementioned method is provided wherein the fluorescence is measured using Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET). In another embodiment, the donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores is selected from the group consisting of green fluorescent protein (GFP), red fluorescent protein (RFP), cyan-fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow-fluorescent protein (YFP), and active fragments thereof.

Polypeptides are also provided in the instant invention. In one embodiment, a polypeptide is provided comprising a modified VDR ligand-binding domain (VDR-LBD) and a donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores, wherein said polypeptide comprises at least one mutation causing said modified VDR to have a higher binding affinity to 25-hydroxyvitamin D relative to calcitriol. In another embodiment, the aforementioned polypeptide is provided wherein the at least one mutation comprises a substitution at amino acid position such as, but not limited to, 274, 147, 150, 227, 230, 233, 234, 271, 275, 286, 288, 300, 309, 313, 418, 237, 143, 278, 305 and 397. In another embodiment, the mutation comprises a substitution at amino acid position 274. In a related embodiment, the mutation at position 274 comprises a substitution of a basic amino acid residue for an aliphatic amino acid residue. In still another embodiment, the mutation comprises Arg274Leu.

Further aspects and advantages will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art from a review of the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the drawings. While the compositions and methods are susceptible of embodiments in various forms, the description hereafter includes specific embodiments with the understanding that the disclosure is illustrative, and is not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodiments described herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and B shows an alignment of human VDR and homologs from other species, as well as the approximate location of DNA-binding domains, ligand-binding domains and helices for each sequence. Sequence alignment of (A) DNA-binding domain and (B) ligand-binding domain of three PXRs, five VDRs, Ciona intestinalis VDR/PXR, and human CAR. The ligand-binding domain is annotated with the α-helices [1]. Accession numbers are: human PXR [Genbank:AF061056], chicken PXR [Genbank:AF276753], takifugu PXR [Ensembl,http://www.ensembl.org:NEWSINFRUT00000171584], human VDR [Genbank:NM_(—)00376], mouse VDR [Genbank:NM_(—)008504], Xenopus laevis VDR [Genbank:U91849], zebrafish VDR [Genbank:AF164512], sea lamprey VDR [Genbank:AY249863], Ciona intestinalis VDR/PXR [Genbank:BR000137], and human CAR [Genbank:NM_(—)005122]. Moore et al., Mol. Endocrinol., 16:977-986 (2002).

FIG. 2 shows a human VDR amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1) and localization of Ser-237 and Arg-274 as indicated in bold. The amino acids of the ligand binding domain (LBD) are indicated by capital letters. The amino acids that in some embodiments may not be expressed are indicated by italics. Removal of this relatively unconserved and flexible sequence allows for crystallization and does not have any effect on ligand binding, dimerization with RXR, or transactivation in vitro (Rochel, 2000).

FIG. 3 shows the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2).

FIG. 4 shows the cyan fluorescent protein (CFP) amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 3).

FIG. 5 shows one example of a VDR-LBDm amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 4) (sYFP2-VDRLBDdelta-linker-sCFP3A).

FIG. 6 shows two possible constructs of modified VDR-LBD (VDR-LBDm):

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention discloses a rapid and clinically accessible assay for the measurement of vitamin D molecules. For this purpose, highly sensitive biosensors are constructed based on the ligand-binding domain of the VDR (VDR-LBD). Upon the binding of ligand (eg., vitamin D or an active vitamin D analog), or upon release of a bound ligand, the LBD undergoes a conformational change. These events can be monitored by adapting paired donor-acceptor flourophores to the VDR-LBD whose proximity to each other are altered as a result of the ligand-induced change in conformation. This change in proximity can generate a measurable signal through Fluorescent Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET), which is the transfer of energy from a donor fluorophore to an acceptor. In one embodiment, FRET will occur between the reporter proteins SCFP3A and SYFP2 that are adapted to the VDR-LBD. By way of example, in one embodiment the reporter proteins are SCFP3A (SCFP3A accession number: AAZ65848) Kremers, G-J., et al (2006) Biochemistry 45, 6570-6580) and SYFP2 (SYFP2 accession number: AAZ65845) Kremers, G-J., et al (2006) Biochemistry 45, 6570-6580).

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The following references provide one of skill with a general definition of many of the terms used in this invention: Singleton, et al., DICTIONARY OF MICROBIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (2d ed. 1994); THE CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (Walker ed., 1988); THE GLOSSARY OF GENETICS, 5TH ED., R. Rieger, et al. (eds.), Springer Verlag (1991); and Hale and Marham, THE HARPER COLLINS DICTIONARY OF BIOLOGY (1991).

Each publication, patent application, patent, and other reference cited herein is incorporated by reference in its entirety to the extent that it is not inconsistent with the present disclosure.

It is noted here that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

The term “subject” as used herein generally includes humans, mammals (e.g., dogs, cats, rodents, sheep, horses, cows, goats), veterinary animals and zoo animals.

It also is specifically understood that any numerical value recited herein includes all values from the lower value to the upper value, i.e., all possible combinations of numerical values between the lowest value and the highest value enumerated are to be considered to be expressly stated in this application. For example, if a concentration range or a beneficial effect range is stated as 1% to 50%, it is intended that values such as 2% to 40%, 10% to 30%, or 1% to 3%, etc., are expressly enumerated in this specification. These are only examples of what is specifically intended.

The term “comprising,” with respect to a peptide compound, means that a compound may include additional amino acids and/or other chemical moieties at either or both amino- and carboxy-termini of the given sequence. Of course, these additional amino acids or other chemical moieties should not significantly interfere with the activity of the compound. With respect to a composition of the instant invention, the term “comprising” means that a composition may include additional components. These additional components should not significantly interfere with the activity of the composition.

As used herein the terms “express,” “expressing” and “expression” mean allowing or causing the information in a gene or DNA sequence to become manifest, for example, producing a protein by activating the cellular functions involved in transcription and translation of a corresponding gene or DNA sequence. A DNA sequence is expressed in or by a cell to form an “expression product” such as a protein. The expression product itself, e.g. the resulting protein, may also be said to be “expressed.” An expression product can be characterized as intracellular, extracellular or secreted.

As used herein a “polypeptide” refers to a polymer composed of amino acid residues, structural variants, related naturally-occurring structural variants, and synthetic non-naturally occurring analogs thereof linked via peptide bonds. Synthetic polypeptides can be prepared, for example, using an automated polypeptide synthesizer. The term “protein” typically refers to large polypeptides. The term “peptide” typically refers to short polypeptides.

As used herein a “fragment” of a polypeptide is meant to refer to any portion of a polypeptide or protein smaller than the full-length polypeptide or protein expression product.

As used herein an “analog” refers to a modified polypeptide substantially similar in structure to the parent polypeptide. The modified polypeptide may have a similar or altered biological activity, or varying degrees of activity, compared to either the entire parent molecule, or to a fragment thereof. For example, the modified polypeptide may have similar or altered (increased or decreased) binding affinity for a ligand or receptor of the parent polypeptide. Analogs differ in the composition of their amino acid sequences based on one or more mutations. Amino acid sequence analogs of a polypeptide can be substitutional, insertional, addition or deletion analogs. Deletion analogs, including fragments of a polypeptide, lack one or more residues of the native protein which are not essential for function or immunogenic activity. Insertional analogs involve the addition of, e.g., amino acid(s) at a non-terminal point in the polypeptide. This analog may include insertion of an immunoreactive epitope or simply a single residue. Addition analogs, including fragments of a polypeptide, include the addition of one or more amino acids at either of both termini of a protein and include, for example, fusion proteins. Substitutions can be conservative or non-conservative based on the physico-chemical or functional relatedness of the amino acid that is being replaced and the amino acid replacing it.

As used herein, a “conservative substitution” of an amino acid is a substitution of one amino acid with another amino acid that has similar physical and chemical properties, e.g. in terms of size, volume, charge, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and the like. Amino acids may be grouped by similarities, e.g. properties like hydrophobic, hydrophilic, acidic, basic, polar, apolar, aromatic, small aliphatic, large aliphatic, etc. Similar amino acids for making conservative substitutions include those having an acidic side chain (glutamic acid, aspartic acid); a basic side chain (arginine, lysine, histidine); a polar amide side chain (glutamine, asparagine); a hydrophobic, aliphatic side chain (leucine, isoleucine, valine, alanine, glycine); an aromatic side chain (phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine); a small side chain (glycine, alanine, serine, threonine, methionine); or an aliphatic hydroxyl side chain (serine, threonine). The conservative nature of a substitution may depend on the location of the amino acid within a polypeptide sequence.

As used herein a “variant” refers to a polypeptide, protein or analog thereof that is modified to comprise additional chemical moieties not normally a part of the molecule. Such moieties may modulate the molecule's solubility, absorption, biological half-life, etc. The moieties may alternatively decrease the toxicity of the molecule and eliminate or attenuate any undesirable side effect of the molecule, etc. Moieties capable of mediating such effects are disclosed in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (1980). Procedure for coupling such moieties to a molecule are well known in the art.

As used herein, a “recombinant polynucleotide” or “recombinant nucleic acid” refers to a polynucleotide having sequences that are not naturally joined together. For example, a nucleic acid coding for a polypeptide may be joined with a heterologous regulatory control sequence or other non-coding sequence (e.g., promoter, operator, origin of replication, ribosome binding site, etc.). Two or more polynucleotides joined in such a manner may be included together in a vector, and the vector can be used to transform a suitable host cell. A host cell that comprises the recombinant polynucleotide is referred to as a “recombinant host cell.” Alternatively, a host cell in which a polynucleotide is naturally present may be modified by addition of a heterologous regulatory control sequence that controls expression of the host cell's natural occurring polynucleotide. Such a host cell is also referred to as a “recombinant host cell.” The expression product produced by a recombinant host cell is referred to as a “recombinant polypeptide.”

As used herein “biologically active derivative” or “biologically active variant” includes any derivative or variant of a molecule having substantially the same functional and/or biological properties of said molecule, such as binding properties, and/or the same structural basis, such as a peptidic backbone or a basic polymeric unit.

Recombinant Vitamin D Receptor

As used herein, the term “vitamin D derivatives” refers to metabolites or derivatives of cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol (collectively referred to as “Vitamin D”), and includes but is not limited to the Vitamin D metabolites 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ and 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ (collectively referred to herein as “25-hydroxyvitamin D”); 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (or calcitriol); 24(S)-hydroxyvitamin D₂; 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₂; and 1α,24(S)-dihydroxyvitamin D₂ The compounds 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃ (or calcitriol) and 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₂ are collectively referred to herein as “1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D”. The term vitamin D derivatives also embraces vitamin D analogs such as Paricalcitol, or any modified vitamin D molecules such as variants, etc, as described herein.

The term “vitamin D receptor” (VDR) includes naturally occurring, recombinant or synthetic vitamin D receptor, as well as polymorphic variants, alleles, naturally-occurring mutants, and species homologs thereof. The VDR is a member of a superfamily of nuclear steroid hormone receptors which regulate gene transcription by interacting with response elements in gene promoters. Structure-function analysis of the VDR protein has defined distinct domains involved in DNA binding, ligand binding, receptor dimerization and gene transactivation, including a C-terminal activation function domain (AF-2) that is important for cofactor interaction (Issa, L. L., et al., Inflamm. Res., 47(12):451-475 (1998)). As with most nuclear receptors, VDR undergoes a conformational change upon ligand binding; helix 12 folds underneath Helix 4 (Rochel, N., et al., Mol. Cell. 5, 173-179) (2000)). The active form of vitamin D (1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₃; 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D₂; and 1α,24(S)-dihydroxyvitamin D₂) binds to intracellular receptors such as the vitamin D receptor that then function as transcription factors to modulate gene expression Like the receptors for other steroid hormones and thyroid hormones, the vitamin D receptor has hormone-binding and DNA-binding domains. The vitamin D receptor forms a complex with another intracellular receptor, the retinoid-X receptor, and that heterodimer is what binds to DNA.

A sequence of human VDR (SEQ ID NO: 1), 427 amino acids in length, is displayed in FIG. 2. Amino acids 118-427 correspond to the vitamin D-binding domain (the ligand binding domain, or “VDR-LBD”). Amino acids˜20-112 correspond to the DNA-binding domain. FIG. 1A and B displays an alignment of human VDR and homologs from other species, as well as the approximate location of DNA-binding domains, ligand-binding domains and helices for each sequence (Reschly et al., BMC Evolutionary Biology, 7:222 (2007)). Helix 12 corresponds to amino acids˜417-422. Helix 4 corresponds to amino acids˜256-267.

One of ordinary skill in the art can determine, e.g. from FIGS. 1A and B, amino acids and regions that are highly conserved among species (i.e., the amino acids are identical or a conservative substitution with an amino acid of similar properties). Identification of these regions provide guidance in modifying the VDR to prepare analogs or variants. For example, conservative substitutions, or modifications outside of the highly conserved regions, are generally expected to lead to either no change or only a small change in the properties of the VDR, e.g., vitamin D derivative binding activity, transcription factor activity, and/or retinoid-X receptor binding activity. Thus, in preparing analogs and variants that retain substantially the same properties as VDR, one of ordinary skill in the art would begin by making conservative or non-conservative substitutions in regions that are not highly conserved, while retaining the same amino acids or making conservative substitutions within highly conserved regions. Similarly, in preparing analogs and variants with altered properties compared to VDR, one of ordinary skill in the art would begin by making non-conservative substitutions in the domain(s) associated with the property to be altered. By way of example, Tyr-147, Phe-150, Leu-227, Leu-230, Leu-233, Val-234, Ile-271, Ser-275, Trp-286, Cys-288, Val-300, Leu-309, Leu-313 and Val-418. Val-418, Ser-237, Arg-274, Tyr-143, Ser-278, His-305 and His-397 could be modified to generate new properties for VDR.

The invention provides fragments of VDR that comprise the ligand binding domain (VDR-LBD), or analogs or variants thereof, and uses thereof in the detection methods of the invention. As used herein, the term “modified VDR-LBD” refers to LBD fragments of VDR or analogs or variants thereof that exhibit altered (increased or decreased) binding affinity for one vitamin D derivative relative to a different vitamin D derivative, and uses thereof in the detection methods of the invention. For example, typically VDR exhibits a greater binding affinity for 1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D relative to 25-hydroxyvitamin D. According to one embodiment of the invention, a modified VDR-LBD that favors 25-hydroxyvitamin D binding over that for calcitriol, is provided. Such a modified VDR-LBD (e.g., VDR-LBDm), can be used according to the methods of the invention to detect the presence of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. In some embodiments, the modified VDR-LBD has at least an approximately 10-fold, 25-fold, 50-fold, 75-fold, 100-fold, 200-fold, 300-fold, 400-fold, 500-fold or greater binding affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D compared to 1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D. In some embodiments, modified VDR-LBD has a greater binding affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂ compared to 1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D₂, while in other embodiments, the modified VDR-LBD has a greater binding affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ compared to 1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃.

The C1 hydroxyl group of calcitriol is coordinated in the VDR-LBD binding pocket by forming hydrogen bonds with Ser-237 and Arg-274. Presumably, this stabilizes calcitriol binding over that of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. It is known that a natural mutation at Arg-274 (Arg274Leu) results in vitamin D—resistant rickets. The binding affinity of a VDR with this particular mutation is approximately 1000-fold lower than that for the wild-type VDR (Kristjansson, K., Rut, A. R., Hewison, M., O'Riordan J. L. & Hughes, M. R. Two mutations in the hormone binding domain of the vitamin D receptor cause tissue resistance to 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1993) J. Clin. Invest., 92, 12-16. Since the bulky hydrophobic side chain of leucine at Arg274Leu would interfere with the C1-hydroxyl group positioning, such a mutation will favor 25-hydroxyvitamin D binding. Mutations have been introduced at Ser-237, including a Ser237Ala mutant which shows approximately 27-fold weaker binding for 1,25-hydroxyvitamin D₃, due to the loss of a stabilizing hydrogen bond (Yamada, S, Yamamoto, K., Masuno, H. & Choi, M. Three-dimensional structure function relationship of vitamin D and vitamin D receptor model. (2001) Steroids 66, 177-187.). It can be envisioned that mutation of Ser-237 to a more bulky hydrophobic side chain will result both in a loss of a stabilizing hydrogen bond and increased steric conflicts with the 1-hydroxyl group, thereby favoring binding of 25-hydroxyvitamin D over 1-25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Also, synthetic VDR-LBDs can be constructed which modify either or both of Ser-237 and Arg-274 with various amino acid side chain groups that will interfere with calcitriol binding but favor that of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Examples of such mutations include, but are not limited to, Ser237Val, Ser237Ile, Ser237Leu, Ser237Ala, Arg274Leu, Arg274Val and Arg274Ile. A number of VDR-LBD constructs can be contemplated which may favour 25-dihydroxyvitamin D binding over that of calcitriol and thus could be used in the FRET based construct for analyzing the presence of 25-dihydroxyvitamin D.

Modified VDR-LBD provided by the invention include, for example and without limitation, polypeptides comprising the ligand binding domains described hereinabove or analogs or variants thereof, polypeptides encoded by a nucleic acid described herein, and/or polypeptides comprising an amino acid sequence that has greater than about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 91%, about 92%, about 93%, about 94%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98% or about 99% or greater amino acid sequence identity to, over a region of at least about 25, about 50, about 100, about 200, about 300, about 400, or more amino acids of, the ligand binding domain of the native protein, including conservative or non-conservative substitutions thereto. In some embodiments, a modified VDR-LBD comprises an amino acid sequence that is specifically bound by an antibody, e.g., polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies, generated against any of the ligand binding domains described herein. Such modified VDR-LBD will retain the binding affinity for vitamin D derivative that is exhibited by SEQ ID NO: 1, or a species homolog thereof. Alternatively, such modified VDR-LBD will exhibit an altered binding affinity for vitamin D derivatives as described herein, including but not limited to a relatively higher binding affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D compared to 1, 25-hydroxyvitamin D. In some embodiments, such a modified VDR-LBD with relatively higher binding affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D may comprise an amino acid mutation (insertion, deletion, or substitution) at any one or more of position 237, 274 . . . of SEQ ID NO: 1. In some embodiments, the mutation at position 274 comprises a substitution of a basic amino acid residue for an aliphatic amino acid residue. In some embodiments, the mutation is a Arg274Leu substitution. In some embodiments, the modified VDR-LBD will delete certain amino acid sequences including sequences considered to be structurally variable e.g. amino acids 165-215 may be deleted to yield a ligand binding domain consisting of amino acids 118-164 followed directly by amino acids 216-427.

Polynucleotides encoding a modified VDR-LBD of the invention include, without limitation, those that (1) specifically hybridize under stringent hybridization conditions to a nucleic acid encoding a referenced amino acid sequence as described herein, and conservatively modified variants thereof; (2) have a nucleic acid sequence that has greater than about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, or higher nucleotide sequence identity, over a region of at least about 25, about 50, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, about 500, about 1000, or more nucleotides (up to the full length sequence of 1281 nucleotides of the mature protein), to a reference nucleic acid sequence as described herein.

Polynucleotides encoding fragments, variants and analogs may be readily generated by a worker of skill to encode biologically active fragments, variants, or analogs of the naturally-occurring molecule that possess the same or similar biological activity to the naturally-occurring molecule. These polynucleotides can be prepared using PCR techniques, digestion/ligation of DNA encoding molecule, and the like. Thus, one of skill in the art will be able to generate single base changes in the DNA strand to result in an altered codon and a missense mutation, using any method known in the art, including, but not limited to site-specific mutagenesis. As used herein, the phrase “moderately stringent hybridization conditions” means, for example, hybridization at 42° C. in 50% formamide and washing at 60° C. in 0.1×SSC, 0.1% SDS. It is understood by those of skill in the art that variation in these conditions occurs based on the length and GC nucleotide base content of the sequences to be hybridized. Formulas standard in the art are appropriate for determining exact hybridization conditions. See Sambrook et al., 9.47-9.51 in Molecular Cloning, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989).

Analogs may be substantially homologous or substantially identical to the recombinant VDR or VDR-LBD from which they are derived.

Substitutional analogs typically exchange one amino acid of the wild-type for another at one or more sites within the protein, and may be designed to modulate one or more properties of the polypeptide without the loss of other functions or properties. In one aspect, substitutions are conservative substitutions. It is further contemplated that a polypeptide of the invention may be a fusion protein with a second agent which is a polypeptide. In one embodiment, the second agent which is a polypeptide, without limitation, is a fluorophore useful in FRET, an enzyme, a growth factor, an antibody, a cytokine, a chemokine, a cell-surface receptor, the extracellular domain of a cell surface receptor, a cell adhesion molecule, a purification tag, a ligand-binding protein, or fragment or active domain of a protein described above. The two polypeptides comprising the fusion protein may be separated by a third polypeptide segment known as a linker, which may consist of any number of amino acids greater than or equal to one. The fusion protein contemplated is made by chemical or recombinant techniques well-known in the art.

Cloning, Expression And Purification Of Vitamin D Receptor

The recombinant vitamin D receptor of the present invention may be produced by any method known in the art. Thus, methods are known in the art for (i) the production of recombinant DNA by genetic engineering, e.g. via reverse transcription of RNA and/or amplification of DNA, (ii) introducing recombinant DNA into procaryotic or eucaryotic cells by transfection, e.g. via electroporation, transformation or microinjection, (iii) cultivating said transformed cells, e.g. in a continuous or batchwise manner, (iv) expressing recombinant vitamin D receptor, e.g. constitutively or upon induction, and (v) isolating said recombinant vitamin D receptor, e.g. from the culture medium or by harvesting the transformed cells, in order to (vi) obtain purified recombinant vitamin D receptor, e.g. via anion exchange chromatography or affinity chromatography. A recombinant vitamin D receptor may be made in transformed host cells using recombinant DNA techniques well known in the art. For instance, sequences coding for the polypeptide could be excised from DNA using suitable restriction enzymes.

Alternatively, the DNA molecule could be synthesized using chemical synthesis techniques, such as the phosphoramidate method. Also, a combination of these techniques could be used. The polypeptides of the invention may be made by synthetic methods. For example, solid phase synthesis techniques may be used. Suitable techniques are well known in the art, and include those described in Merrifield (1973), Chem. Polypeptides, pp. 335-61 (Katsoyannis and Panayotis eds.); Merrifield (1963), J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85: 2149; Davis et al. (1985), Biochem. Intl. 10: 394-414; Stewart and Young (1969), Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis; U.S. Pat. No. 3,941,763; Finn et al. (1976), The Proteins (3rd ed.) 2: 105-253; and Erickson et al. (1976), The Proteins (3rd ed.) 2: 257-527. Solid phase synthesis is the preferred technique of making individual peptides since it is the most cost-effective method of making small peptides.

Methods for preparing polypeptide fragments, variants or analogs are well-known in the art.

Fragments of a polypeptide are prepared using, without limitation, enzymatic cleavage (e.g., trypsin, chymotrypsin) and also using recombinant means to generate a polypeptide fragments having a specific amino acid sequence. Polypeptide fragments may be generated comprising a region of the protein having a particular activity, such as a ligand-binding domain or any other identifiable VDR domain known in the art.

Methods of making polypeptide analogs are also well-known. The invention also provides vectors encoding polypeptides of the invention in an appropriate host. The vector comprises the polynucleotide that encodes the polypeptide operatively linked to appropriate expression control sequences. Methods of effecting this operative linking, either before or after the polynucleotide is inserted into the vector, are well known. Expression control sequences include promoters, activators, enhancers, operators, ribosomal binding sites, start signals, stop signals, cap signals, polyadenylation signals, and other signals involved with the control of transcription or translation. The resulting vector having the polynucleotide therein is used to transform an appropriate host. This transformation may be performed using methods well known in the art.

In still other aspects, a wide variety of vectors are used for the preparation of the VDR or VDR-LBD and are selected from eukaryotic and prokaryotic expression vectors. Examples of vectors for prokaryotic expression include plasmids such as, and without limitation, pRSET, pET, and pBAD, wherein the promoters used in prokaryotic expression vectors include one or more of, and without limitation, lac, trc, trp, recA, or araBAD. Examples of vectors for eukaryotic expression include: (i) for expression in yeast, vectors such as, and without limitation, pAO, pPIC, pYES, or pMET, using promoters such as, and without limitation, AOX1, GAP, GAL1, or AUG1; (ii) for expression in insect cells, vectors such as and without limitation, pMT, pAc5, pIB, pMIB, or pBAC, using promoters such as and without limitation PH, p10, MT, Ac5, OpIE2, gp64, or polh, and (iii) for expression in mammalian cells, vectors such as and without limitation pSVL, pCMV, pRc/RSV, pcDNA3, or pBPV, and vectors derived from, in one aspect, viral systems such as and without limitation vaccinia virus, adeno-associated viruses, herpes viruses, or retroviruses, using promoters such as and without limitation CMV, SV40, EF-1, UbC, RSV, ADV, BPV, and β-actin.

Any of a large number of available and well-known host cells may be used in the practice of this invention. The selection of a particular host is dependent upon a number of factors recognized by the art, including, for example, compatibility with the chosen expression vector, toxicity of the peptides encoded by the DNA molecule, rate of transformation, ease of recovery of the peptides, expression characteristics, bio-safety and costs. A balance of these factors must be struck with the understanding that not all host cells are equally effective for the expression of a particular DNA sequence. Within these general guidelines, useful microbial host cells include bacteria, yeast and other fungi, insects, plants, mammalian (including human) cells in culture, or other hosts known in the art. Examples of eukaryotic cells are mammalian cells, such as CHO, COS, HEK 293, BHK, SK-Hep, and HepG2.

Next, the transformed host is cultured and purified. Host cells may be cultured under conventional fermentation conditions so that the desired compounds are expressed. Such fermentation conditions are well known in the art. Finally, the polypeptides are isolated and optionally purified from culture, either culture media or the host cells, by methods well known in the art.

Methods of Detecting

The methods of the invention monitor the conformational changes induced by binding of the vitamin D derivative to the VDR, polypeptide comprising a modified VDR-LBD. The binding of vitamin D derivative results in detectable conformational changes that quantitatively correspond to the amount of vitamin D derivative present in a sample. A variety of samples can be analyzed according to the methods of the present invention, including analytical samples, bulk drug product, finished or filled drug product, or patient and animal samples, such as blood, plasma, serum, urine, saliva, and tissue.

Numerous methods are available to monitor the conformational changes induced by protein-protein interactions (e. g., ligand-receptor binding) (Protein-Ligand Interactions: Methods and Applications. (2005) Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol 305. G. Ulrich Nienhaus, Editor) see also (Protein-Protein Interactions: Methods and Applications. (2004) Methods in Molecular Biology, Vol 261. Haian Fu, Editor)). These techniques can be adapted to the methods of the present invention. One example of a suitable technique is Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer, or FRET, which detects the non-radiative transfer of photon energy from an excited fluorophore (the donor) to another fluorophore (the acceptor) when both are located within close proximity (e.g., 1-10 nm). FRET is thus capable of resolving the relative proximity of a pair of molecules beyond the optical limit of a light microscope. Conventional application of FRET technology has been to monitor molecular interactions between two protein partners, e.g., when each member of a protein-protein pair is labeled with appropriate donor and acceptor fluorophores. In some circumstances, it is possible to monitor structural changes within a single molecule tagged with two fluorophores. (De, S., Macara, I. G. & Lannigan, D. A. Novel biosensors for the detection of estrogen receptor ligands. (2005) J. Ster. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 96, 235-244.)

In FRET imaging, typically the emission spectrum of the donor overlaps the absorption spectrum of the acceptor, such that energy transfer occurs when the donor and acceptor molecules are in close proximity (typically 10-100 Å, which is 1-10 nm). For comparison the diameter of a DNA double helix is 2.3 nm, an F-actin filament ˜6 nm, an intermediate filament ˜10 nm, and a microtubule 25 nm). Optimal energy transfer occurs when the donor and acceptor transition dipole orientations are approximately parallel. FRET imaging can be performed with number of microscopy techniques known in the art, including but not limited to widefield fluorescence microscopy or confocal microscopy.

Thus, the VDR, or polypeptide comprising a modified VDR-LBD, optionally comprises at least two, three, or more fluorophores, preferably a donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores, selected so that the polypeptide exhibits increased or decreased fluorescence in the presence of vitamin D derivative relative to the amount of fluorescence in the absence of vitamin D derivative.

As used herein, “fluorophore” means a compound that comprises a functional group that will absorb energy of a specific wavelength and re-emit energy at a different (but equally specific) wavelength. The fluorophore's properties depend on the compound's absorption and emission spectra, quantum efficiency (the ratio between the energy absorbed and the energy emitted), and the chemical environment of the fluorophore.

As used herein, a “donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores” is a set of at least two fluorophores (donor and acceptor) selected to be capable of producing detectable energy transfer when brought in proximity to each other, e.g. 1-10 nm.

Fluorophores include Fluorescent proteins (FPs) like the green-fluorescent-protein (GFP) from Aequoria victoria, red fluorescent protein (RFP), analogs, variants and homologs thereof. They can be genetically fused to proteins of interest and expressed in cells making them an excellent reporter system for gene expression and protein localization in living cells. Several enhanced FP variants with different spectral and biochemical properties are available. FPs that emits in the cyan region can be optimally paired for FRET with FPs that emits in the yellow region since the emission spectrum of CFPs partially overlaps the excitation spectrum of YFP. When CFPs is excited at approximately 430 nm, YFP emits at 545 nm if the two proteins are within close proximity. When these fluorophores are separated, there is a measurable and corresponding drop in FRET. Fluorescent proteins include but are not limited to Y66H, Y66F, EBFP, EBFP2, SYPF2, SCFP3A, Azurite, GFPuv, T-Sapphire, Cerulean, mCFP, ECFP, CyPet, Y66W, mKeima-Red, TagCFP, AmCyan1, mTFP1, S65A, Midoriishi Cyan, Wild Type GFP, S65C, TurboGFP, TagGFP, S65L, Emerald, S65T, EGFP, Azami Green, ZsGreen1, TagYFP, EYFP, Topaz, Venus, mCitrine, YPet, TurboYFP, ZsYellow1, Kusabira Orange, mOrange, mKO, TurboRFP, tdTomato, TagRFP, DsRed monomer, DsRed2 (“RFP”), mStrawberry, TurboFP602, AsRed2, mRFP1, J-Red, mCherry, HcRed1, Katusha, mKate (TagFP635), TurboFP635, mPlum, and/or mRaspberry (Shaner, N. C., Patterson, G. H. & Davidson, M. W. Advances in fluorescent protein technology (2007) J. Cell. Sci. 120, 4247-4260)).

Other fluorophores include but are not limited to Hydroxycoumarin, Aminocoumarin, Methoxycoumarin, Cascade Blue, Pacific Blue, Pacific Orange, Lucifer yellow, NBD, R-Phycoerythrin (PE), PE-Cy5 conjugates, PE-Cy7 conjugates, Red 613, PerCP, TruRed, FluorX, Fluorescein, BODIPY-FL, TRITC, X-Rhodamine, Lissamine Rhodamine B, Texas Red, Allophycocyanin (APC), APC-Cy7 conjugates, Alexa Fluor dyes, Alexa Fluor 350, Alexa Fluor 405, Alexa Fluor 430, Alexa Fluor 488, Alexa Fluor 500, Alexa Fluor 514, Alexa Fluor 532, Alexa Fluor 546, Alexa Fluor 555, Alexa Fluor 568, Alexa Fluor 594, Alexa Fluor 610, Alexa Fluor 633, Alexa Fluor 647, Alexa Fluor 660, Alexa Fluor 680, Alexa Fluor 700, Alexa Fluor 750, Alexa Fluor 790, Cy Dyes (GE Heathcare), Cy2, Cy3, Cy3B, Cy3.5, Cy5, Cy5.5, Cy7, Nucleic acid probes, Hoechst 33342, DAPI, Hoechst 33258, SYTOX Blue, Chromomycin A3, Mithramycin, YOYO-1, Ethidium Bromide, Acridine Orange, SYTOX Green, TOTO-1, TO-PRO-1, Thiazole Orange, Propidium Iodide (PI), LDS 751, 7-AAD, SYTOX Orange, TOTO-3, TO-PRO-3, DRAQ5, Indo-1, Fluo-3, DCFH, DHR, SNARF, Monochlorobimane, Calcein, time resolved fluorescence reagents including lanthanide (Sm, Eu, Tb, Dy) chelates and cryptates such as Europium cryptate, Lumi4-Tb, XL665, d2 .

In some embodiments, the donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores is SCFP3A and SYFP2

In some embodiments of the invention, the methods are capable of detecting concentrations of vitamin D derivative ranging from about 1 to about 100 ng/ml, 0.1 to about 1000 ng/ml, 0.5 to about 100 ng/ml, 1 to about 50 ng/ml, 25 to about 75 ng/ml, or broader ranges. Physiological concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D is about 25.0 to 80.0 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL), and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D is about 22.0 to 67.0 picograms per milliliter (pg/mL).

It is understood that any numerical value recited herein includes all values from the lower value to the upper value, i.e., all possible combinations of numerical values between the lowest value and the highest value enumerated are to be considered to be expressly stated in this application. For example, if a concentration range or a beneficial effect range is stated as 1 to 50, it is intended that values such as 2 to 40, 10 to 30, or 1 to 3, etc., are expressly enumerated in this specification. These are only examples of what is specifically intended.

The compositions, methods and kits of the invention are useful for evaluating body fluid or body tissue samples, e.g., blood, plasma, serum, CSF, urine or tissue samples, from any subject. Suitable subjects include healthy subjects, subjects in need of vitamin D supplementation, subjects at risk of insufficiency or deficiency of vitamin D or vitamin D derivatives, subjects suffering from insufficiency or deficiency of vitamin D or vitamin D derivatives, subjects being treated with vitamin D or vitamin D derivatives, and subjects with vitamin D-responsive diseases.

In some embodiments, the methods of the invention are applied to detect vitamin D derivative in samples from patients in need of vitamin D supplementation, including but not limited to healthy subjects and subjects at risk for vitamin D insufficiency or deficiency, for example, subjects with stage 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 chronic kidney disease (CKD); subjects with renal osteodystrophy (including osteomalacia and osteitis fibrosa cystica); infants, children and adults that do not drink vitamin D fortified milk (e.g. lactose intolerant subjects, subjects with milk allergy, vegetarians who do not consume milk, and breast fed infants); subjects with rickets; subjects with dark skin (e.g., in the U.S., 42% of African American women between 15 and 49 years of age were vitamin D deficient compared to 4% of white women); the elderly (who have a reduced ability to synthesize vitamin D in skin during exposure to sunlight and also are more likely to stay indoors); institutionalized adults (who are likely to stay indoors, including subjects with Alzheimer's disease or mentally ill); subjects who cover all exposed skin (such as members of certain religions or cultures); subjects who always use sunscreen (e.g., the application of sunscreen with an Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of 8 reduces production of vitamin D by 95%, and higher SPFs may further reduce cutaneous vitamin D production); subjects with fat malabsorption syndromes (including but not limited to cystic fibrosis, cholestatic liver disease, other liver disease, gallbladder disease, pancreatic enzyme deficiency, Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, sprue or celiac disease, or surgical removal of part or all of the stomach and/or intestines); subjects with inflammatory bowel disease; subjects with Crohn's disease; subjects who have had small bowel resections; subjects with gum disease; subjects taking medications that increase the catabolism of vitamin D, including phenytoin, fosphenytoin, phenobarbital, carbamazepine, and rifampin; subjects taking medications that reduce absorption of vitamin D, including cholestyramine, colestipol, orlistat, mineral oil, and fat substitutes; subjects taking medications that inhibit activation of vitamin D, including ketoconazole; subjects taking medications that decrease calcium absorption, including corticosteroids; subjects with obesity (vitamin D deposited in body fat stores is less bioavailable); subjects with osteoporosis and/or postmenopausal women.

In some embodiments, the methods of the invention are applied to detect vitamin D derivative in samples from patients with vitamin D-responsive diseases, i.e., diseases where vitamin D, 25(OH)D or active vitamin D (e.g., 1, 25(OH)₂D) prevents onset or progression of disease, or reduces signs or symptoms of disease. Such vitamin D-responsive diseases include cancer (e.g., breast, lung, skin, melanoma, colon, colorectal, rectal, prostate and bone cancer). 1,25(OH)₂D has been observed to induce cell differentiation and/or inhibit cell proliferation in vitro for a number of cells. Vitamin D-responsive diseases also include autoimmune diseases, for example, type I diabetes, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, polymyositis, dermatomyositis, scleroderma, fibrosis, Grave's disease, Hashimoto's disease, acute or chronic transplant rejection, acute or chronic graft versus host disease, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, systemic lupus erythematosis, Sjogren's Syndrome, eczema and psoriasis, dermatitis, including atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, allergic dermatitis and/or chronic dermatitis. Vitamin D-responsive diseases also include other inflammatory diseases, for example, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, polycystic kidney disease (PKD), polycystic ovary syndrome, pancreatitis, nephritis, hepatitis, and/or infection. Vitamin D-responsive diseases have also been reported to include hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Thus, the methods of the invention include testing samples from subjects at risk of or suffering from cardiovascular diseases, for example, subjects with atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, cerebral ischemia, stroke, congestive heart failure, cardiomyopathy, obesity or other weight disorders, lipid disorders (e.g. hyperlipidemia, dyslipidemia including associated diabetic dyslipidemia and mixed dyslipidemia hypoalphalipoproteinemia, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, and low HDL (high density lipoprotein)), metabolic disorders (e.g. Metabolic Syndrome, Type II diabetes mellitus, Type I diabetes mellitus, hyperinsulinemia, impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, diabetic complication including neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy, diabetic foot ulcer and cataracts), and/or thrombosis.

EXAMPLES

The following Examples are provided for illustration and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

Example 1 Vitamin D Biosensor

A modified VDR-LBD (VDR-LBDm) (FIG. 5 and FIG. 6) construct is used to assemble a FRET-based assay for measuring 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels. Gene constructs corresponding to the desired VDR-LBDm will be generated such that CFP and YFP are linked at either end. The consequent CFP-VDR-LBDm-YFP or YFP-VDR-LBD-CFP (FIG. 6) constructs can be cloned into appropriate expression vectors to be produced in plant, yeast, bacterial, insect, mammalian or other cells useful for expressing such a construct. CFP-VDR-LBDm-YFP or YFP-VDR-LBDm-CFP proteins can be purified or partially purified from extracts of construct expressing cells and used for assay development.

As described herein, a VDR-LBDm can be constructed which modifies either or both of Ser-237 and Arg-274 with various amino acid side chain groups that will interfere with calcitriol binding but favor that of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. A number of VDR-LBDm constructs can be contemplated which may favor 25-dihydroxyvitamin D binding over that of calcitriol and thus could be used in the FRET based construct for analyzing the presence of 25-dihydroxyvitamin D.

In other embodiments, mutations at the following amino acids are contemplated: Tyr-147, Phe-150, Leu-227, Leu-230, Leu-233, Val-234, Ile-271, Ser-275, Trp-286, Cys-288, Val-300, Leu-309, Leu-313, Val-418, Ser-237, Arg-274, Tyr-143, Ser-278, His-305 and His-397.

FIG. 2 shows a human VDR amino acid sequence and localization of Ser-237 and Arg-274 (bold) as indicated by the arrow. In capitals are amino acids of the ligand binding domain (LBD). FIG. 3 shows the yellow fluorescent protein (SYFP2) amino acid sequence (accession No. AAZ65845) and FIG. 4 shows the cyan fluorescent protein (SCFP3A) amino acid sequence (accession No. AAZ65848). FIG. 5 shows one potential construct according to the invention: in bold; SYFP2, bold+italic; SCFP3A, italic; optional linker, and in the center (normal) VDR-LBD with possible mutations (underlined).

The foregoing description is given for clearness of understanding only, and no unnecessary limitations should be understood therefrom, as modifications within the scope of the invention may be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art.

Throughout the specification, where compositions are described as including components or materials, it is contemplated that the compositions can also consist essentially of, or consist of, any combination of the recited components or materials, unless described otherwise.

The practice of a method disclosed herein, and individual steps thereof, can be performed manually and/or with the aid of electronic equipment. Although processes have been described with reference to particular embodiments, a person of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that other ways of performing the acts associated with the methods may be used. For example, the order of various of the steps may be changed without departing from the scope or spirit of the method, unless described otherwise. In addition, some of the individual steps can be combined, omitted, or further subdivided into additional steps. 

1. A method for measuring the amount or concentration of a vitamin D derivative in a sample comprising: a) contacting a sample with a polypeptide comprising a modified VDR ligand-binding domain (VDR-LBD) and a donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores; and b) measuring the amount of fluorescence, wherein said amount of fluorescence is detectably higher or lower in the presence of the vitamin D derivative relative to the amount of fluorescence in the absence of the vitamin D derivative.
 2. The method according to claim 1 wherein the vitamin D derivative is 25-hydroxyvitamin D.
 3. The method according to claim 2 wherein the modified VDR has at least a 10-fold higher affinity for 25-hydroxyvitamin D than to other vitamin D derivatives.
 4. The method according to claim 1 wherein the sample is from a mammalian subject.
 5. The method according to claim 4 wherein the mammalian subject is a human.
 6. The method according to claim 5 wherein the human is suffering from chronic kidney disease (CKD).
 7. The method according to claim 1 wherein the modified VDR comprises at least one mutation causing said modified VDR to have a higher binding affinity to 25-hydroxyvitamin D relative to calcitriol.
 8. The method according to claim 7 wherein said at least one mutation comprises a substitution at amino acid position 274, 147, 150, 227, 230, 233, 234, 271, 275, 286, 288, 300, 309, 313, 418, 237, 143, 278, 305 and
 397. 9. The method according to claim 8 wherein said mutation at position 274 comprises a substitution of a basic amino acid residue for an aliphatic amino acid residue.
 10. The method according to claim 8 wherein said at least one mutation comprises Arg274Leu.
 11. The method according to claim 1 wherein the fluorescence is measured using Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET).
 12. The method according to claim 11 wherein the donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores is selected from the group consisting of green fluorescent protein (GFP), red fluorescent protein (RFP), cyan-fluorescent protein (CFP), yellow-fluorescent protein (YFP), and active fragments thereof.
 13. A polypeptide comprising a modified VDR ligand-binding domain (VDR-LBD) and a donor-acceptor pair of fluorophores, wherein said polypeptide comprises at least one mutation causing said modified VDR to have a higher binding affinity to 25-hydroxyvitamin D relative to calcitriol.
 14. The polypeptide of claim 13 wherein said at least one mutation comprises a substitution at amino acid position 274, 147, 150, 227, 230, 233, 234, 271, 275, 286, 288, 300, 309, 313, 418, 237, 143, 278, 305 and
 397. 15. The polypeptide of claim 13 wherein said mutation at position 274 comprises a substitution of a basic amino acid residue for an aliphatic amino acid residue.
 16. The polypeptide of claim 13 wherein said at least one mutation comprises Arg274Leu. 